Environmental Determinism Definition

Throughout the study of geography, there have been some different approaches to explaining the development of the worlds societies and cultures. One that received much prominence in geographic history but has declined in recent decades of academic study is environmental determinism. Environmental Determinism Environmental determinism is the belief that the environment, most notably its physical factors such as landforms and climate, determines the patterns of human culture and societal development. Environmental determinists believe that ecological, climatic, and geographical factors alone are responsible for human cultures and individual decisions. Also, social conditions have virtually no impact on cultural development. The main argument of environmental determinism states that an areas physical characteristics like climate have a substantial impact on the psychological outlook of its inhabitants. These different outlooks then spread throughout a population and help define the overall behavior and culture of a society. For instance, it was said that areas in the tropics were less developed than higher latitudes because the continuously warm weather there made it easier to survive and thus, people living there did not work as hard to ensure their survival. Another example of environmental determinism would be the theory that island nations have unique cultural traits solely because of their isolation from continental societies. Environmental Determinism and Early Geography Although environmental determinism is a relatively recent approach to formal geographic study, its origins go back to ancient times. Climatic factors, for example, were used by Strabo, Plato, and Aristotle to explain why the Greeks were so much more developed in the early ages than societies in hotter and colder climates. Additionally, Aristotle came up with his climate classification system to explain why people were limited to settlement in certain areas of the globe.​​ Other early scholars also used environmental determinism to explain not only the culture of a society but the reasons behind the physical characteristics of a societys people. Al-Jahiz, a writer from East Africa, for instance, cited environmental factors as the origin of different skin colors. He believed that the darker skin of many Africans and various birds, mammals, and insects was a direct result of the prevalence of black basalt rocks on the Arabian Peninsula. Ibn Khaldun, an Arab sociologist, and scholar was officially known as one of the first environmental determinists. He lived from 1332 to 1406, during which time he wrote a complete world history and explained that the hot climate of Sub-Saharan Africa caused dark human skin.​ Environmental Determinism and Modern Geography Environmental determinism rose to its most prominent stage in modern geography beginning in the late 19th Century when it was revived by the German geographer Friedrich RÃ ¤tzel and became the central theory in the discipline. RÃ ¤tzels theory came about following Charles Darwins Origin of Species in 1859 and was heavily influenced by evolutionary biology and the impact a person’s environment has on their cultural evolution. Environmental determinism then became popular in the United States in the early 20th Century when RÃ ¤tzel’s student, Ellen Churchill Semple, a professor at Clark University in Worchester, Massachusetts, introduced the theory there. Like RÃ ¤tzel’s initial ideas, Semple’s were also influenced by evolutionary biology. Another one of RÃ ¤tzel’s students, Ellsworth Huntington, also worked on expanding the theory around the same time as Semple. Huntingtons work though, led to a subset of environmental determinism, called climatic determinism in the early 1900s. His theory stated that the economic development in a country could be predicted based on its distance from the equator. He said temperate climates with short growing seasons stimulate achievement, economic growth, and efficiency. The ease of growing things in the tropics, on the other hand, hindered their advancement. The Decline of Environmental Determinism Despite its success in the early 1900s, environmental determinism’s popularity began to decline in the 1920s as its claims were often found to be wrong. Also, critics claimed it was racist and perpetuated imperialism. Carl Sauer, for instance, began his critiques in 1924 and said that environmental determinism led to premature generalizations about an area’s culture and did not allow for results based on direct observation or other research. As a result of his and others criticisms, geographers developed the theory of environmental possibilism to explain cultural development. Environmental possibilism was set forth by the French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche and stated that the environment sets limitations for cultural development, but it does not wholly define culture. Culture is instead defined by the opportunities and decisions that humans make in response to dealing with such limitations. By the 1950s, environmental determinism was almost entirely replaced in geography by environmental possibilism, effectively ending its prominence as the central theory in the discipline. Regardless of its decline, however, environmental determinism was an important component of geographic history as it initially represented an attempt by early geographers to explain the patterns they saw developing across the globe.

Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs Free Essays

Abstract With the explosive growth of mobile wireless communication technologies, network integration is vital for next generation wireless networks as the different technologies available have been optimized for diverse usage models. This paper addresses the interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax focusing mainly on interference and handover management. Firstly the coexistence issue of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed as they operate in the adjacent (almost overlapping) bands. We will write a custom essay sample on Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs or any similar topic only for you Order Now Secondly a new standard aimed at providing a framework for media independent handover (MIH) among diverse networks is presented. Finally using a usage scenario, it is further shown how the MIH framework helps in the handover management taking into consideration user preference and available resources in the above named networks. Keywords: MIH; interoperability; coexistence; Introduction Wireless communication growth has been on the increase in the past years, thanks to the advantages they offer which include deployment flexibility, compatibility and user mobility during communications. Emerged technologies have been designed independently to deal with specific service types, usability domains and user categories.. The need to optimize performance led to the integration of radio access technologies to extend service availability as users expect to be globally reachable everywhere and at all times to the best network possible. For this to be feasible, access networks have to work together to enable users take full advantage of the available options (Piris et al 2009). The IEEE 802.21 standard which provides a framework for Media-Independent Handover (MIH) in diverse networks is discussed in this paper. This standard defines three types of MIH services (event, command, and information) that facilitate the mobility management and handover decision making (lim et al 2009). The interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed from the interference and handover perspective. The problem of mutual interference between Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is analyzed using time multiplexing enabling their coexistence and to further aid their interoperability, the IEEE 802.21 standard which seamlessly enables handover (which occurs frequently due to user preference or allocated resources) among diverse networks is discussed. This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 starts with a background which provides an overview of the wireless technologies considered above. In Section 3, using a collaborative technique, the coexistence problem of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed, the section goes further on to analyze how the IEEE 802.21 standard makes possible the interoperability of the three technologies. Section 4 provides an illustrative use case that highlight the usage of the Media-Independent Handover Services standard in an integrated wireless environment and some issues associated with their interoperability is discussed. Finally, the paper ends with conclusion and future directions. 2.0 Background 2.1. Bluetooth (PAN) As stated by Bhagwat (2001), Bluetooth 1.1 is a short range wireless link technology intended for cable replacement. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. As seen in Golmie (2001), Bluetooth’s air interface is based on an antenna power of 1mW and uses Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) as its modulation scheme. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) divides the channel in 625 µs slot and support a data rate of 700kbps to 3Mbps. Bluetooth uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Song et al (2007). Bluetooth uses authorization and authentication to verify users and their right to connect with each other. As indicated by Johansson et al (1999), Authentication in Bluetooth uses the challenge–response strategy and connection may require a one way, two-way or no authentication which is achieved based on the stored link key or by pairing. Traskback (2000) adds that there are three different security modes present in Bluetooth, Mode 1,2 and 3. 2.2.WLAN(LAN) 802.11 is a collection of standards for implementing WLAN communication in the designated frequency bands. Currently there are about twenty two(22) amendments(Labiod et al 2007)which all adopt the media access technique called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).This work is focused on the 802.11g specification. Song et al (2007) indicates that 802.11g has a coverage of about 75 feets, supports the Direct squence spread spectrum and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing signalling method to attain a maximum data rate of 54Mbps. 802.11g operates in the 2.4GHz band. Security in WLAN can be achieved by deploying an authenication mechanism as a means to WLAN access contol and providing confidentiality for wireless data by establishing encrption. The EAP-TLS which provides certificate-based authentication for WLANs, a replaced WEP as it satisfied all the required properties of authentication protocols (Tavallaee, 2007). 2.3.WIMAX(WAN) Wimax operates on FCC licensed frequency range of 10 to 66GHz and unlincensed frequencies of 2 to 11GHz and has a theoritical bandwidth and range of 75Mbps and 50Km respectively. IEEE 802.16e, the mobile version of Wimax will be considered in this paper, 802.16e works in the 2.3GHz and 2.5GHz frequency bands and uses OFDM (Zhang Chen, 2008).,the WiMAX MAC is centralized and connection-oriented unlike WLAN MAC that is distributed and connectionless (DeBeasi, 2008). Security in WiMax is based on authentication, encryption and authorization. 3.0 Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax Interoperability This section analyzes a solution from the MAC layer to handle the coexistence issue between WiMax ,WLAN and Bluetooth and to further aid interoperability, discusses the implementation of the IEEE 802.21 standard which enables seamless handover among diverse networks. 3.1Solution to the coexistence problem of WiMax, Bluetooth and WLAN The idea is to synchronize the different protocols to ensure that their bandwidth over a shared spectrum is allocated in a time multiplexed, non-concurrent but fair way. By this, interference can be eliminated when these technologies operate in an integrated environment. Considering a usage scenario where a Mobile node(MN) uses a Bluetooth enabled wireless headset to conduct a cellular conversation, while simultaneously downloading email or browsing the Internet through the phone’s WiMax and WLAN air link interchangeably, Time division multiplexing is uses to mitigate interference as Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax(band class 2 and 3) operate at adjacent frequencies bands (almost overlapping) thus causing conflict and severe performance degradation(Bitran Eshed, 2007) Firstly, the protocols are synchronized in time. A lowest common denominator is found between the different clock systems and are coordinated accordingly. WiMax time base is based on 5ms frame and Bluetooth is based on 625 µs per slot. 15ms is considered a common factor between the two system clocks during which 3 WiMax frames and 24 Bluetooth slots will be processed(Bitran Eshed, 2007). The addition of the WLAN in the coexistence scheme involves CSMA/CD which is not based on time allocations but on collision detection and the use of random back offs, ibid., p2. To minimize power consumption and to avoid interference, the WLAN interface is set to sleep mode when it is not transmitting and have the access point buffer all its transmissions – up to a predefined buffer size. When the channel is free and it exits the sleep mode, it sends a trigger frame to the access point, who sends all its buffered data. The figure below is a solution showing how the technologies would operate in the 15ms time interval. Having synchronized the links and identified the fundamental, repetitive pattern, it is essential to ensure that they remain synchronized throughout the concurrent operation of the links. Figure 1 illustrating time multiplexing of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax (Bitran Eshed, 2007) The Bluetooth SCO/HV3 profile defines a repetitive six slot period during which two consecutive slots are used for transmission. Because the Bluetooth interface is used in this scenario for transfer of voice, it is given preference. To avoid interruptions, the WiMax base station refrains from allocating transmission opportunities to the slots used by the Bluetooth. 3.2Seamless Handover Based on user preference and available resources , the ability to switch (Seamless Handover) between the different technologies has been made possible by the IEEE 802.21 standard which provides a framework for Media-Independent Handover (MIH) in diverse networks. This is discussed below. The IEEE 802.21 standard (media independent handover) was proposed to facilitate interoperability between IEEE 802 and non IEEE 802 technologies (Pontes et al, 2008). The 802.21 framework is called the media independent handover (MIH). MIH provides link layer intelligence and other related network information to upper layers to optimize handovers (Ying et al, 2008). It is assumed that mobile Node has interfaces that supports all three technologies. To sustain uninterrupted user connections during handover across different networks, the handover-enabling functions (MIHF) defined by the IEEE 802.21 is logically introduced between Layer 2 and Layer 3 of the OSI network stack. The MIHF provides available information from lower layers (MAC and PHY) to the higher layers of the protocol stack which are used to make handover and link-selection decisions. Figure 2 MIH framework/architecture (Gupta et al, 2006). As seen in figure 2, The main component of the IEEE 802.21 framework is the MIHF. It provides a consolidated interface to the upper layers independent of the primary access technologies. This is made possible by three services: The Media-independent event service (MIES),the Media-independent information service (MIIS) and the Media independent command service (MICS) The MIES provides services to the upper layers by reporting both local and remote events such as changes in link conditions, link status, and link quality. The MICS enables upper layer manage and control the parameters related to link behavior and handovers. The MICS offer commands to the upper layer, with this commands able to manage and send actions to the lower layers. The MIIS facilitates handovers by providing a mechanism for the MIHF to discover available neighboring network information within its vicinity. Hence, MIIS allows mobile nodes to check for available networks in range while using their currently active access network. 4.0 Usage Scenario Considering the same scenario cited above.FMIPv6 signaling is explicitly included as the Layer 3 mobility management protocol The MN request MIIS information and constantly listens to its interfaces. Upon receiving a signal from a WLAN AP accompanied by a 802.11 link detected event from the MAC layer sent to the MIHF, the MN becomes aware of a new connectivity opportunity. The event 802.11 link is sent to the upper layer, particularly sent to FMIPv6 the management protocol which in turn contacts the handover policy engine which pre-verifies the new connection. Depending on the implemented handover policy, the MN searches for information about the new network at the MIIS (such as security, required bandwidth security etc.) Figure 3 shows the operation in detail. The upper layer executes the handover decision taking into account the user’s preference and the resources available at the new network. After the decision has been made, the FMIPv6 signaling begins as illustrated in the figure above. The MN still stays connected to the previous point of attachment to provide a make-before-break approach enabling seamless hand over. When the FMIPv6’s FNA message is received, it indicates that handover has been completed (Pontes et al, 2008). The MN handover complete message releases the resources allocated by WiMax and deactivates the interface. Figure 3 WiMax/WLAN handover using the MIH framework with Bluetooth coexistence (PONTES et al 2008) 4.1. Interoperability Issues. Inability to control soft handovers: In the absence of an explicit support at the upper layer, an application is unable to benefit from soft handover capabilities when moving across different networks even if soft handovers are possible at the data link layer. The migrated connection are therefore open to packet loss and performance degradation. (Hsien et al, 2004). Infrastructure Support: Current approaches proposed that Mobile IP (MIP) can handle network layer mobility is only possible if the network provider provides for a home agent. Also the effectiveness of the approaches to achieve host mobility without incurring overhead in different networks, again is limited to the specificity of the networks they are assigned for. (Ibid). Power and Interference Management: Power management becomes a challenge when diverse access networks are integrated in same device. Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax(band class 2 and 3) operate at adjacent frequencies bands(almost overlapping) thus causing conflict End to end security: Ensuring a trusted, efficient and usage-model appropriate means of authenticating users is a key issues in cross-network connectivity. (Hurwitz Bryan, 2003) as the different network devices have different security settings. 5.0Conclusion The emergence of heterogeneous wireless access technologies and their interoperability has been a major concern for future wireless systems. In this paper, the interoperability of WiMax, Bluetooth and WLAN have been discussed. Because no technology is good or generic enough to replace all others thus combined usage is a good approach to offer the always best connection. The coexistence of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax was analyzed first, taking into consideration the fact that the operate in adjacent (almost overlapping) frequency bands, so are subject to interference. Secondly with the use of the MIH framework, the interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax was illustrated through a common scenario. Some issues associated with their interoperability were also mentioned. For the future, active research should be performed in this area to completely eliminate these interoperability issues to enable users seamlessly utilize services irrespective of the network concerned for better coverage even at a low cost. Bibliography Bhagwat, P. (2001). IEEE Internet Computing. Bluetooth technology for Short-Range wireless Apps. , 5 (3), 96-103. Bitran, Y., Eshed, E. (2007, June 18). Solving the coexistence of WiMAX, Bluetooth and WiFi in converged handsets. EE Times Design . DeBeasi, P. (2008, March 24). WiMAX INTRODUCTION. Retrieved from http://www.mobileparadigm.com/my articles/200803.WiMAXPart1.pdf Golmie, N. (2001). Interference in the 2.4 GHz ISM band: Challenges and solutions.(online). Retrieved from http://www.antd.nist.gov/pubs/golmie.pdf. Golmie, N. (2009). Seamless Mobility: Are we there yetIEEE Wireless Communications – National Institute of standards and Technology Gupta, V., Williams, M. G., Johnston, D., McCann, S., Barber, P., Ohba, Y. (2006, July 18). IEEE 802.21 Overview of Standard for Media Independent Handover Services. IEEE 802 Plenary . San Diego. Han, T., Zhang, N., Liu, K., Tang, B., Liu, Y. (2008). Analysis of Mobile WiMAX Security: Vulnerabilities and Solutions. IEEE International Conference , 828. Hsien, H.-Y., Kim, K.-H., Sivakumar, R. (2004). An End-to-End approach for transparent mobility accross heterogeneous wireless networks. Mobile networks and applications , 364. Hurwitz, R., Bryan, P. (2003, November 1). The Future of wireless handsets. Retrieved 2011, from Deviceforge.com: http://www.deviceforge.com/articles/AT7085477626.html Jahansson, P., Jahansson, N., Korner, U., Jahannes, E., Svennaqs, G. (1999). 1999 IEEE International Conference Communications, 1999. ICC ’99. Short range radio based ad-hoc networking: performance and properties , 3, 1414. Jokela, J., Simpson, F., Zaks, A., Zhu, J. (2007). WPAN/WLAN/WWAN Multi-Radio Coexistence. IEE 802 Plenary. Atlanta. Labiod, H., Afifi, H., Santis, C. D. (2007). WI-FI T M , BLUETOOTH T M , ZIGBEE T M A ND WIMAX TM. The Netherlands: The Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht. Lansford, J., Nevo, R., Zehav, E. (2000, Nov 7). IEEE P802.15 Working Group for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). MEHTA: A method for coexistence between co-located 802.11b and Bluetooth systems . Hillsboro. Lim, W.-S., Kim, D.-W., Suh, Y.-j., Won, J.-J. (2009). mplementation and performance study of IEEE 802.21 in integrated IEEE 802.11/802.16e networks. Computer communication , 32 (1), 134-143. PONTES, A. B., SILVA, D. D., JOSE JAILTON, J., O. R. (2008, October 2008). HANDOVER MANAGEMENT IN INTEGRATED WLAN AND MOBILE WIMAX NETWORKS. IEEE Wireless Communications . Prince, J. (2006, November 12). Ensuring WLAN, Bluetooth Coexistence. Retrieved March 2011, from http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/HONSHI/20061121/124164/ Piris, E., Pentikousi, K. (2009). IEEE 802.21: Media-Independent Handover Services. Th e I n t e r n e t P ro to c o l Jo u r n a l , 12 (2), 7-27. Song, M., Shetty, S., Gopalpet, D. (2007). Mobile Networks and Applications. Coexistence of IEEE 802.11b and bluetooth: An Integrated Performance Analysis , 12 (5), 450-459. Tavallaee, M. (2007). â€Å"An Overview of WLAN Authentication Protocols†. Technical report, Univeristy of New Brunswick. Traskback, M. (2000). Security of Bluetooth. An overview of Bluetooth Security, Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering Helsinki University of . Vainio, J. (2000). â€Å"Bluetooth security†. Proceedings of Helsinki University of Technology, Telecommunications Software and Multimedia Laboratory, Seminar on Internetworking: Ad Hoc Networking . Ying, W., Yun, Z., Jun, Y., Ping, Z. (2008, May 20). An Enhanced Media Independent Handover Framework for Heterogeneous Networks. IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, 2008. VTC Spring 2008. . , 2306. Zhang, Y., Chen, H.-H. (2008). Mobile Wimax : Towards Broadband Wireless Metropolitian Area Networks. NW: Taylor and Francis group,LLC. How to cite Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs, Essay examples

Special Friendship Essay Research Paper I walked free essay sample

Particular Friendship Essay, Research Paper I walked place from school, transporting a heavy burden of books on my hurting shoulders. Each measure I took was accompanied with a wish that I was already at place, resting on my cosy bed. I walked on, my eyes stuck on the burned black route. As I dragged my pes along, I could see little pieces of dried pitch turn overing on the unsmooth surface. Upon making my doorsill, I heaved a heavy suspiration of relieve and pleasance. At last, I have reached my long waited finish ; place. My ruddy, gluey thenar reached out for the doorhandle. I was approximately to put pes onto the cold shiny tiles when I heard a soft whine coming from behind me. When I turned to look for the beginning of the sound, I felt something rage coppice past my mortise joint. Looking down at the rage thing, I was rooted to the land. We will write a custom essay sample on Special Friendship Essay Research Paper I walked or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Right at that place, looking back at me, was a beautiful grey kitty. I could non believe my eyes. Before I could even believe of what to make next, the kitty ran into the kitchen. Then, I heard my male parent boom in torment. I was given a 10 proceedingss lecture. Although I explained that the kitten went into the house when I came place, my male parent pig-headedly came with the decision that I intentionally let it in. After the lecture, I was ordered to throw the kitty out of the house. Reluctantly, I brought it to a resort area near my house. I had brought along a Sn of pilchards, which I took without anybody? s cognition. I gave the kitty the pilchards and watched it devour it. I stroked the soft, smooth rage animal and said adieu, go forthing it behind. Surprisingly, the kitty ever waits for me at my doorsill when I return from school. It did non travel into my house but alternatively waited patiently for me to alter into my insouciant apparels before conveying it to the resort area with a Sn of cat nutrient that has cost a one-fourth of my school disbursals. This went on for the following two hebdomads, and the following and the following. The kitty has so become my friend, a particular friend. Sometimes, when I am truly pressurized with my school assignment, I will kick to the kitty. Peoples might believe I am insane or merely obviously stupid. Nevertheless, I think I did the right thing. This is because by making so I can really experience the force per unit area within me go forthing, everytime I complained to the kitty. Furthermore, the kitty seems to understand me. It would cream my custodies and so playfully seize with teeth my fingers. It was like stating me to hearten up. This particular friendly relationship went on. The kitty is now a plump, healthy cat. I do non see it mundane but I will neer bury to go forth nutrient for it at my doorsill. This particular friendly relationship is so an experience I am truly proud of.

Free Essays on Red Spruce In Vermont

Where Have All The Red Spruce Gone? Acid Rain in Vermont Forest Ecology Term Paper Grant 1 â€Å"Acid Rain.† It is a term that has been imbedded in us for many decades and yet still it is an issue today. It is a term that was coined in 1872 by Dr. Robert Angus Smith, an English chemist. (Mello 21). He noticed that the air in the cities contained many different contaminates including sulfuric acid, which he believed to be the cause of corroding metals and certain types of damage to plants. His colleagues ignored his studies and findings and it wasn’t until 100 years later that scientists started to explore this serious problem. There are many different pollutants that incur the effects of acid deposition. Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere from sources such as power plants, automobiles, factories, and even residential furnaces. These primary pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO). When nitrogen and sulfur combine with oxygen, a very reactive element in our atmosphere, secondary pollutants are formed. These include photochemical oxidants, such as ozone, and acid deposition. Acid rain forms when nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide react with oxidants and moisture in the atmosphere to form nitric acid and sulfuric acid. These acids are made of hydrogen and nitrate or sulfate ions (Dept of Agriculture 8). These acids can reach the earth as precipitation in the form of rain, Grant 2 snow, sleet, hail, clouds, dew, and fog. It can also reach the earth as dry particles or gasses. Many of these gaseous emissions and particles come from coal burning power plants and other industrial sources. Subsequently, in Northern New York and New England, there are few industrial areas, however the pollutants are carried hundreds of miles and deposited here by different weather patterns. In the 1960’s scientists began to notice a decline in the red spruce population in Vermont... Free Essays on Red Spruce In Vermont Free Essays on Red Spruce In Vermont Where Have All The Red Spruce Gone? Acid Rain in Vermont Forest Ecology Term Paper Grant 1 â€Å"Acid Rain.† It is a term that has been imbedded in us for many decades and yet still it is an issue today. It is a term that was coined in 1872 by Dr. Robert Angus Smith, an English chemist. (Mello 21). He noticed that the air in the cities contained many different contaminates including sulfuric acid, which he believed to be the cause of corroding metals and certain types of damage to plants. His colleagues ignored his studies and findings and it wasn’t until 100 years later that scientists started to explore this serious problem. There are many different pollutants that incur the effects of acid deposition. Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere from sources such as power plants, automobiles, factories, and even residential furnaces. These primary pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO). When nitrogen and sulfur combine with oxygen, a very reactive element in our atmosphere, secondary pollutants are formed. These include photochemical oxidants, such as ozone, and acid deposition. Acid rain forms when nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide react with oxidants and moisture in the atmosphere to form nitric acid and sulfuric acid. These acids are made of hydrogen and nitrate or sulfate ions (Dept of Agriculture 8). These acids can reach the earth as precipitation in the form of rain, Grant 2 snow, sleet, hail, clouds, dew, and fog. It can also reach the earth as dry particles or gasses. Many of these gaseous emissions and particles come from coal burning power plants and other industrial sources. Subsequently, in Northern New York and New England, there are few industrial areas, however the pollutants are carried hundreds of miles and deposited here by different weather patterns. In the 1960’s scientists began to notice a decline in the red spruce population in Vermont...

Birthright Citizenship in the United States

Birthright Citizenship in the United States Birthright citizenship in the United States is the legal principle that any person born on U.S. soil automatically and immediately becomes a U.S. citizen. It contrasts with U.S. citizenship obtained through naturalization or acquisition- citizenship granted by virtue of being born abroad to at least one U.S. citizen parent. A â€Å"birthright† is defined as any right or privilege to which a person is entitled by virtue of birth. Long challenged in both the courts of law and public opinion, the policy of birthright citizenship remains highly controversial today, particularly when applied to children born to undocumented immigrant parents. Key Takeaways: Birthright Citizenship Birthright citizenship is the legal principle that any person born on U.S. soil automatically becomes a citizen of the United States.Birthright citizenship was established in1868 by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and confirmed by the US Supreme Court in the 1898 case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark.Birthright citizenship is granted to persons born in the 50 U.S. states and the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.Today, birthright citizenship is a highly controversial issue as it applies to children born to parents who have entered the United States illegally. Jus Soli and Jus Sanguinis Citizenship Birthright citizenship is based on the principle of â€Å"jus soli,† a Latin term meaning â€Å"right of the soil.† According to jus soli, a person’s citizenship is determined by their place of birth. As in the United States, jus soli is the most common means by which citizenship is acquired. Jus Soli is in contrast to â€Å"jus sanguinis,† meaning â€Å"right of the blood,† the principle that a person’s citizenship is determined or acquired by the nationality of one or both parents. In the United States, citizenship can be acquired by either jus soli, or less commonly, by jus sanguinis.   Legal Basis of US Birthright Citizenship In the United States, the policy of birthright citizenship is based in the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, stating â€Å"[a]ll persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.† Ratified in 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was enacted to override the 1857 U.S. Supreme Court’s Dred Scott v. Sandford decision which had denied citizenship to former African American slaves. In the 1898 case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark, the U.S. Supreme Court confirmed that under the Fourteenth Amendment, full U.S. citizenship cannot be denied to any person born within the United States, regardless of the citizenship status of the parents at the time. Under the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, birthright citizenship is similarly granted to any person born in the United States to a member of an Indian, Eskimo, Aleutian, or other aboriginal tribe. Under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, U.S. jus soli birthright citizenship, as established by the Fourteenth Amendment, is automatically granted to any person born within any of the 50 states and the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In addition, jus sanguinis birthright citizenship is granted (with some exceptions) to persons born to U.S. citizens while in other countries.   The above statutes and subsequent legislative amendments are compiled and codified into the United States Code of Federal Laws at 8 U.S.C.  § 1401 to define who becomes a United States citizen at birth. According to federal law, the following persons shall be deemed U.S. citizens at birth: A person born in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof.A person born in the United States to a member of an Indian, Eskimo, Aleutian, or other aboriginal tribe.A person born in an outlying possession of the United States of parents one of whom is a citizen of the United States who has been physically present in the United States or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous period of one year at any time prior to the birth of such person.A person of unknown parentage found in the United States while under the age of five years, until shown, prior to his attaining the age of twenty-one years, not to have been born in the United States. The Birthright Citizenship Debate While the legal concept of birthright citizenship has withstood years of challenges in the courts of law, its policy of automatically granting U.S. citizenship to children of undocumented immigrants has not fared as well in the court of public opinion. For example, a 2015 Pew Research Center survey found that 53% of Republicans, 23% of Democrats, and 42% of Americans overall favor changing the Constitution to bar citizenship for children born in the U.S. to undocumented immigrant parents. Many opponents of birthright citizenship argue that it encourages expectant parents to come to the U.S. simply to give birth in order to improve their own chances of attaining legal resident (green card) status- a practice often called â€Å"birth tourism.† According to a Pew Hispanic Center analysis of Census Bureau data, an estimated 340,000 of the 4.3 million babies born in the United States in 2008 were born to â€Å"unauthorized immigrants.† The Pew study further estimates that a total of about four million American-born children of unauthorized immigrant parents lived in the U.S. in 2009, along with about 1.1 million foreign-born children of unauthorized immigrant parents. Controversially calling it the â€Å"anchor baby† situation, some lawmakers have suggested legislation to change how and when birthright citizenship is granted. The 2015 Pew analysis found that birthright citizenship was granted to about 275,000 babies born to undocumented immigrant parents in 2014, or about 7% of all births in the U.S. that year. That number represents a drop from the peak year of illegal immigration in 2006 when about 370,000 children- about 9% of all births- were born to undocumented immigrants. In addition, about 90% of undocumented immigrants who give birth in the U.S. have resided in the country for more than two years before giving birth. On October 30, 2018, President Donald Trump escalated the debate by stating that he intended to issue an executive order completely removing the right of citizenship to people born in the U.S. to foreign nationals under any circumstances- an act some argue would essentially repeal the Fourteenth Amendment. The president set no timeline for his proposed order, so birthright citizenship- as established by the Fourteenth Amendment and United States v. Wong Kim Ark- remains the law of the land. Other Countries With Birthright Citizenship According to the independent, non-partisan Center for Immigration Studies, the United States along with Canada and 37 other countries, most of which are in the Western Hemisphere, offer largely unrestricted jus soli birthright citizenship. No Western Europe countries offer unrestricted birthright citizenship to all children born within their borders. Over the last decade, many countries, including France, New Zealand, and Australia, have abandoned birthright citizenship. In 2005, Ireland became the last country in the European Union to abolish birthright citizenship. Sources and Further Reference Arthur, Andrew R. (November 5, 2018). Birthright Citizenship: An Overview. Center for Immigration Studies.Smith, Rogers M. (2009). Birthright Citizenship and the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 and 2008. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law.Lee, Margaret (May 12, 2006). U.S. Citizenship of Persons Born in the United States to Alien Parents. Congressional Research Service.Da Silva, Chantal. (October 30, 2018). Trump Says He Plans to Sign Executive Order to Terminate Birthright Citizenship. CNN.

Communication Method Preferred By Workers Statistics Project

Communication Method Preferred By Workers - Statistics Project Example The results saw more company employees suggest to side with formal communication. Basing on the sample used, the results were as follows. Eighteen of the employees suggested that the best communication method for them would be the formal communication method, only eight members believed that informal methods like grapevine could aid in communication in the company while only four employees remained neutral with no particular side to support. According to the graph, the results remain in support of the employee communication as a means of people to create a force that works together and more bound. According to the graph, many of the employees rather supported the use of formal means of communication rating it than using the informal means. The neutral part remained accounted for but only four voted believing that they had no particular side of communication. These results indicated that the use of formal communication means could help hasten up the operations of the company despite the different disadvantages of the two. The informal means include the use of grape vine, which may also cause difficulties in interactions. The informal means provides the unofficial way of propelling information (DuBrin,

Journal M5-M6 for art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Journal M5-M6 for art - Essay Example This method is familiar to use from childhood (Getlein, 268). When modeling, the sculptor begins with a simple framework and adds material until the sculpture is finished. Carving basically, is a subtractive process whereby the sculpture starts with a mass of material larger than the planned sculpture and takes await the extra materials until the desired sculpture is attained. On the other hand, the author describes casting as a process of molding of some kind, whereby liquid or semiliquid material is poured and allowed to harden. Basically, this chapter describes each of these methods into detail and look at some of the materials they are used with (Getlein, 269). This chapter is very interesting and it brings out the theme of methods of sculpture. The chapter describes various methods of sculpture and their importance. The way the author describes the various methods is just splendid. He not only describes the methods but he accompanies every method with an example. This makes the chapter easier to understand and comprehend hence appreciating the work of art to greater lengths. Chapter 12 This chapter focuses on Arts of Ritual and Daily Life. In this chapter, the book describe the content that ‘art’ was derived from, objects made with great skill and inventiveness, rewards for contemplate and the ultimate meaning. The author argues that art was made to handled, touched, to be used in daily life or in ritual settings such as religious occasions. For these reasons, art possess a special human intimacy. Whenever we see art in the museum, it is good to recognize that they were once used by their owners who took them into their lives. The chapter starts by introducing various used media such as glass, wood, fiber, clay, ivory, lacquer and jade as described by the Western objects fashioned before the arise of the fine art. The chapter then discusses on how Western thinking about these arts has changed and been challenged in the 21st century since fine art was born. Various cultures are also revealed through art and the author explains this concept by the revealing the elements of exporting art through various cultures (Getlein, 271). The main theme of the chapter is the origin of fine art and the influence of Western culture to the development of fine art. According to the chapter, the modern concept of art took place during the 18th Century. During this period, the European philosophers separated paintings, architecture and sculpture from other kinds of skilled making and placed them in a new category called fine. My personal assessment after reading the chapter is that Western culture greatly was very vital and still influential in the development of current art. Chapter 13 Architecture is a very important aspect of art. More than any other arts, architectural arts demands structural stability. Every individual, there is a daily movement in and out of buildings, and some may take that for granted (Getlein, 280). Have you ever t hought about it? That maybe they might collapse on you? Well, all credit goes to architecture. This chapter focuses on structural systems in architecture in which a stable of a building is based. The chapter also describes various structural systems which are introduced in roughly chronological order in which they were developed. These structural systems include; load-bearing construction, Post-and-Lintel, Round Arch and Vault, Pointed Arch and Vault,